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Tuesday, October 29, 2019

A Potential Wormhole Detection Method

 
Credit: Shutterstock

Wormholes have been ubiquitous in science fiction for a long time. The prospect of a portal which transports you across the universe is too good to pass up. Surprisingly, wormholes are now a physical possibility. Wormholes agree with Einstein’s general theory of relativity, which means their existence is permitted by the laws of physics. However, just because they can exist, doesn’t mean they do exist, since a positive detection of wormholes has never been made. Recently, physicists De-Chang Dai and Dejan Stojkovic published a paper outlining what a possible wormhole detection could look like, and how to look for them.

An important thing to note is that wormholes are two-directional. Theoretically, if objects can travel from point A to point B using the wormhole, then they can also travel from point B back to point A. This paper rests on the fact that if matter can be exchanged in this manner across a wormhole, then forces must also behave in the same way. For example, if a negative charge is on side A of a wormhole, and a positive charge is on side B of a wormhole, then the two charges experience an attraction to one another, due to the electromagnetic force transmitted across the wormhole. To an observer unaware of the wormhole on side A, this behaviour would look very strange, as it would appear that the negatively charged particle is experiencing a force from nowhere.

The authors propose that a similar method could be used to detect wormholes candidates. Rather than charged particles, however, the paper suggests using stars as wormhole detectors. One popular idea is that black holes themselves may harbour wormholes. Suppose we want to determine whether the black hole in the centre of our galaxy, Sagittarius A*, contains a wormhole. The paper suggests observing the orbits of stars around Sagittarius A* and looking for any unexplained deviations. Such deviations may suggest that the stars are experiencing gravitational attraction to massive objects, like other stars, on the other side of the wormhole.

Unfortunately, there is a catch. Unexpected deviations in the stars’ orbits may be caused be the black hole containing a wormhole, but this is not the only potential cause. There exist many other explanations that do not include wormholes which can explain the perturbation of a star’s orbit around a black hole, such as other stars which may be obscured from view. Consequently, although this paper proposes an exciting prospect, it is by no means a definitive detection method.

Read the original research paper here: https://journals.aps.org/prd/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevD.100.083513

Sunday, October 27, 2019

The 2019 Nobel Prize in Physics

 
Credit: Nobel Institute

On October 8, the 2019 Nobel Prizes in Physics were announced. This year, there were three recipients: Swiss astrophysicists Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz, and Canadian physicist James Peebles. Peebles will receive one half of the associated monetary prize, and Mayor and Queloz will split the other half.

Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz are being recognized for one of the most revolutionary discoveries in modern astronomy: the detection of the first exoplanet orbiting a main sequence star. The planet 51 Pegasi b, also known as Dimidium, was discovered in 1995 around the star 51 Pegasi 47.9 lightyears from Earth using the radial velocity method. It had a mass of around 146 Earth masses and orbited its host star in 4.23 days. This discovery proved to the scientific community and the world at large that planets exist beyond the solar system. Since then, exoplanetary astronomy has experienced a massive boom in research, resulting in over 4,000 known exoplanets.

51 Pegasi b is a significant discovery not just because it demonstrated that exoplanets exist, but because it showed astronomers that exoplanetary systems will vary greatly from our own. 51 Pegasi b is the only planet in its system, and it is a Jupiter-sized planet that orbits its star very closely. Comparing this to our own eight-planet system, where the closest gas giant to the Sun takes 12 years to orbit the Sun, this system is in stark contrast to our own. 51 Pegasi b is the original “hot Jupiter”, a class of planet that further research has shown is one of the most common types of exoplanet. This discovery paved the way for the exoplanetary astronomy of today, which will hopefully culminate in the discovery of truly habitable worlds, and perhaps extraterrestrial life, sometime in the future.

James Peebles is being recognized for his ground-breaking contributions to theoretical studies in physical cosmology. Once, physical cosmology was not considered a serious or rigorous branch of physics. However, thanks to the work of physicists such as Peebles, it is now our best tool for understanding how the origins and eventual fate of the universe. He has been previously recognized by the Shaw Prize, whose citation for Peebles stated that he transformed “a highly speculative field into a precision science."

Peebles made significant contributions to the Big Bang model, our current theory which describes the origin of the universe. He also predicted several ways in which the Big Bang model could be experimentally supported, such as the cosmic microwave background (CMB). He made further significant contributions to big bang nucleosynthesis, models of the formation of large-scale structure in the universe, and the ever-mysterious dark matter and dark energy. The significance of Peebles’ career cannot be understated, as thanks to his work, we have an exceptional understanding of the origin and evolution of the universe. Studies in physical cosmology will ideally lead to, sometime in the future, a complete understanding of dark matter and dark energy; this would be a grand triumph in our quest to understand reality.

Mice with Human Brain Cells

 

A recent study published in the Journal of Neuroscience worked on implementing human brain cells into mice brains. The presence of human brain cells in the mouse’s brain allows scientists to study different neurological diseases and conditions in a whole brain, rather than a laboratory dish. According to Steve Goldman, the study’s lead from Rochester University Medical Centre, these mice still have their own neurons which are responsible for sending and receiving information from various parts of the body. What makes them unique is the presence of human glial cells that are responsible for supporting neurons. 

Rochester University scientists extracted glial cells from the human fetus and injected it into young mice. In fact, each mouse received 300,000 human glials which multiplied to 12 billion after a year, ultimately moving the mouse counterparts to the margins and replacing the native cells. The extracted glial cells were ‘astrocytes’ which are responsible for maintaining the ionic environment within the human brain. They also play an important role in the movement of electrical signals from one neuron to the other. 

According to NewScientist, human astrocytes are almost 20 times the size of mouse glial cells. Therefore, by implementing human glial cells in mice brain, a huge difference is noticed in the conduction of electrical messages, eventually leading to changes in mice intelligence. Interestingly, Goldman’s team used standard memory and cognition tests to realize that mice with human glial cells have a much better memory, almost 4 times greater than the control mice.



Learn more by reading the full article at New Scientist:
https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn26639-the-smart-mouse-with-the-half-human-brain/#.VHx_yTGsW4g

Original Journal:
https://www.jneurosci.org/content/34/48/16153.abstract

Image Credit: EXPRESS (express.co.uk)

Saturday, September 28, 2019

A Safe Way to Fix a Heart

 
Karen Christman, one of the inventors of VentriGel and the CEO of Ventrix, is a Department of Bioengineering professor at UC San Diego.

From UC San Diego, a spin-off company known as Ventrix has accomplished a phase 1 clinical trial to test if a hydrogel - referred to as VentriGel - can safely heal cardiac tissue and thus allow the heart to function normally again in patients who have recently undergone a heart attack. 

Heart attacks can take a large toll on cardiac tissue, leading to scarring. Scarred tissue greatly impairs cardiac function due to damaged cardiac muscle. The idea centered around VentriGel is for it to serve as a scaffold that can bring new cells over to the damaged sites of the heart and essentially fix the cardiac muscle, thereby restoring heart function. 

The production of this hydrogel is relatively straightforward. Cardiac cells are eliminated from pig cardiac connective tissue and the tissue is then freeze-dried, turned into a powder and finally into a liquid. Via an injection, the liquid enters heart muscle where physiological temperature turns the liquid into a porous gel. 

The clinical trials are FDA approved and they explored the effects of this hydrogel in 15 patients who had heart attacks that specifically left their left ventricular chamber fairly damaged. Before injecting VentriGel a maximum of 18 times, the patients had a walking test and several other cardiac assessments. These assessments were repeated after three and six months and MRIs were conducted three and six months post procedure. 

After the injection of VentriGel, patients were observed to increase their walking distance and had overall better heart health. Ventrix is hoping to move forward with phase 2 trials in which a more generalized cohort will be used to comprehend the potential hydrogel has on improving the lives of people suffering from heart attacks. 


Read more at:

Image Credit:
David Baillot/University of California San Diego

Thursday, September 26, 2019

Amphetamine as a Performance-Enhancing Drug

 


In 1837, Romanian chemist  Lazar Edeleanu synthesized Amphetamine, which was later used by the US army to prevent fatigue among soldiers in World War II battlefields (1). Since then, the usage of amphetamines has broadened greatly. In the 1950s, it first appeared as the performance-enhancing drug used by athletes (2).
Amphetamine is part of a group of central nervous system stimulants which increase the effect of neurotransmitters noradrenaline, dopamine, and serotonin (3)(4). In the production of these neurotransmitters, chemoreceptors act as monitors. Chemoreceptors detect the presence of amphetamines in blood and send a message to the hypothalamus, the coordinating center. Subsequently, all receiver neurons act as a regulator for the hypothalamus’s message. In a healthy brain, neurotransmitters are released to synapses by an action potential. After creating an electric message in the receiver neuron, neurotransmitters would move back into the sender neuron’s axon through the process of reuptake. Amphetamines disrupt the process of reuptake, causing a more frequent signal production than normal.

Amphetamine increases noradrenaline’s effect by stimulating receptors in vessels. The resultant vessel constriction enhances the transportation of oxygen and nutrients to the brain and heart, which prevents the occurrence of lactic acid fermentation and fatigue (5). Although this improves performance in competitions, high noradrenaline in the blood causes anxiety, hypertension and heart attack (6). Inhibiting the reuptake of dopamine and serotonin (increasing their effects) causes euphoria, enthusiasm and self-satisfaction, which are psychologically beneficial for athletes before stressful contests. However, the extreme sense of satisfaction is addictive meaning that after a while, the brain would only function naturally if amphetamine is present (7)(8).

Learn more about amphetamine by checking out the article's resources:

(1) https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/fast-times-the-life-death-and-rebirth-of-amphetamine
(2) https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/d932/06b1bc088c8c6bf2909397e11d772cac7ca9.pdf
(3) https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/221211.php  
(4) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2853386
(5) http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/medicines/heart-and-blood/a7006/noradrenaline-norepinephrine/
(6) https://www.livestrong.com/article/138774-high-norepinephrine-symptoms/ 
(7) https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/evolutionary-psychiatry/201105/dopamine-primer
(8) http://www.psypost.org/2017/01/increased-serotonin-ramp-motivation-lower

Image Credit: Clarity Way

Monday, September 16, 2019

James Webb Space Telescope Fully Assembled

 
Image Credit: NASA

One of humanity’s most valuable resources for exploring the universe is space-based telescopes. Perhaps the most famous of these telescopes is Hubble, which has had an impressive 29-year career. With time comes age, however, and there now exist improved pieces of technology that compete with Hubble. As a result, plans for the James Webb Space Telescope, a next-generation space observatory, were created. Originally it had a planned launch date of 2011, however, billions of dollars over funding and eight years later, JWST still has not launched. This date is now firmly on the horizon because for the first time, its two halves were joined together by NASA engineers.

JWST is composed of two main parts: the telescope itself, the iconic golden mirror made of 18 hexagons, and the spacecraft itself, equipped with a sunshield to protect the telescope’s scientific instruments from harmful solar radiation. Until now, these two parts have been separated. Each piece has undergone several brutal tests, designed to simulate both the ascent to space on a rocket and placement in space. However, they have not yet been tested together; now, this is possible.

This assembly is a major milestone in the project’s history. The telescope has survived cancellation attempts and waves of criticism after successive launch dates have not been met. Thankfully, this indicates that the end is near, with a current projected launch date of March 30, 2021.

JWST will play a crucial role in observational astrophysics for the coming decades of the 21st century. As the successor to Hubble, it will provide us with an even better ability to observe the universe. Compared to the Hubble, it has significantly increased resolution and sensitivity, allowing for never-before-seen images of the cosmos to be captured. Observing primarily in the infrared spectrum the James Webb Space Telescope will allow scientists around the world to explore some of the most fundamental mysteries in astronomy and cosmology. It will be able to see farther back into the history of the universe than ever before, perhaps even observing the first galaxies to have ever formed.

Physicists Discover a New Phase of Matter

 

The three most common states of matter (solid, liquid, and gas) have been known to humans for as long as we have been able to observe them. Then, as science began to progress, we began discovering new states of matter that are infrequently, or even never, observed in nature. These include common states such as plasma, and much more exotic states such as Bose-Einstein condensates and superconductors. This list of exotic states continues to grow, with its most recent addition being topological superconductivity.

Although the quest for new, more exotic states of matter may seem like nothing more than an investigation into how strange nature can be, topological superconductivity has important implications for our future. In their paper, Mayer et al. report that this new state could increase storage in electronic devices, and more importantly, improve quantum computing.

Quantum computers are of such interest because they can perform calculations far faster than the computers of today. Currently, computers operate fundamentally on digital bits, which consist of binary inputs 0 or 1, to execute commands, complete tasks, and run calculations. However, quantum computers operate instead on qubits, quantum systems which are capable of taking on any value between 0 and 1, significantly decreasing calculation time.

The study focused on what are known as Majorana fermions, which are of particular interest to quantum information researchers because they can store quantum information in such a way that it is shielded from any environmental interference. However, there was no known substance that could successfully contain these particles for actual use, until the recent discovery of topological superconductivity.

Due to its ability to host Majorana fermions, topological superconductivity shows promise for fault-tolerant quantum computing. This would allow qubits to store information while providing that state the ability to be manipulated without causing error. The information encoded by each qubit can now be protected from errors that arise either from interactions with the surrounding environment, or from interactions within the computer. This discovery will have important implications for our future, as the age of quantum computing will soon be upon us.

Read the research paper here: https://arxiv.org/pdf/1906.01179.pdf

Sunday, September 15, 2019

Viability of Glacier Grafting Tested

 
Increased carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions have led to a dramatic increase in ocean acidification since oceans absorb approximately a quarter of the world’s CO2 emissions. Melting glaciers further add to the problem by disrupting ocean current patterns and increasing salinity. This impacts everything, from marine organisms to crop yields. Water conservation is an effective means of reducing CO2 emissions; can glacier growing work? 
Carbon dioxide reacts with seawater to form carbonic acid which causes acidification of seawater. Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, humans have added approximately 400 billion tons of carbon to the atmosphere resulting in a 0.1 pH drop in the ocean. While this value may appear small, such a drop in pH translates to an astonishing 25% increase in acidity since the pH scale is logarithmic. 
The rapid speed of acidification deprives marine organisms of time to adapt thereby weakening corals, softening the shells of scallops, slowing the molting of crabs, confusing fish with diverse smells and more. 
Melting glaciers and icebergs release freshwater initially reducing salinity of the surrounding sea. Consequently, seawater becomes less dense which influences ocean current patterns. This, along with atmospheric changes are contributing factors to oceans’ increasing salinity despite increased glacial melting. Water salinity and shortages are two of the largest environmental constraints that crops have to face in the climate change scenario.
To increase their supply of fresh water, the local people of northern Pakistan have been grafting glaciers for over 100 years. The aim is to "grow" ice at high altitudes in the winter to increase meltwater for crop irrigation during the summer. The practice begins in the autumn, where a dozen local men climb to shaded areas above the snow line with 300kg of glacial ice and pots of Indus River water (approx. 120 kg), as well as other ingredients like saw dust, wheat husk, charcoal and salt. These ingredients are placed in a cave or depression and covered with soil. 

Glacier growth is slow and affected by a multitude of factors. Viability studies on this practice began in 2005 but due to the nature of glacier growth, it is too soon to draw any conclusive evidence on its effectiveness. However, according to the locals, these grafting techniques are the only solution to late summer water shortages in their villages. 

Saturday, August 31, 2019

Sharks may hold the Cure for Cancer

 
Great White Sharks May Hold the Cure to Cancer

 From the cinematic Jaws series and the multiple incidents that have taken place in the beaches of Florida, sharks have been known as one of the world’s most dangerous marine creatures. However, though these creatures can be of great harm to humans when provoked in water, they can indirectly be helpful to aid human health.
From immense research collected by scientists from Southeastern California University, sharks actually hold the medicinal properties that may cure cancer and aid aging illnesses in humans. Now, what do sharks have, that humans don’t have in order to cure diseases? 
According to BBC news, the director of the Save Our Seas Shark Research Centre and the Guy Harvey Research Institute at Nova Southeastern University, Dr. Mahmood Shivji, a great white shark has the remarkable ability to repair its own DNA. Its genome is 1.5 times bigger than an average human’s genome, meaning that it has about 4.63 billion base pairs. Notably, according to an article in The Chronicle Herald, 60% of a shark’s genome has repeat gene sequences and about 30% of them are composed of a special type of DNA called “LINEs” which are commonly known as “jumping genes”. These are special genes that can replicate themselves and produce copies that are known to “jump” around and insert themselves into variable genomes. 
Many of the special genes that were observed in a shark’s genome, were thought to maintain genome stability repairing DNA and containing key tumor suppressing genes. According to Dr. Shivji, this phenomena was the result of evolutionary change sharks experienced. Dr. Shivji had said that these genes are “enriched” rather than ordinary due to special sequence changes that could help repair wounds. Research shows that since sharks have no bones,  cells of their immune system are readily available in the bloodstream and as such, antibodies are better able to infiltrate tissue and therefore reach the disease faster.
Furthermore, researchers of the Guy Harvey Institute bring to attention that sharks are endangered species and so, scientific research should be kept ethical while exploring a shark's body; sharks should not be killed for the sole purpose of creating medicine that could cure diseases. 
Moreover, the public have brought up questions on whether shark cartilage can be incorporated into health supplements. However, scientists have said that further research is still yet to be done for this to happen. According to an article written by Charles Bryant on www.animal.howstuffworks.com, a study from 2005 was done on mice and humans where oral shark cartilage was incorporated in a supplement which caused the side effects of nausea and diarrhea. It is also important to consider that shark cartilage contains mercury. 
Therefore, research is still in progress in regards to sharks and their medicinal properties, so it is important to consider that solutions are in exploration and there are further more discoveries yet to be made with alternative species. 













Sources





Wednesday, August 28, 2019

Virtual Private Networks

 
Image result for vpns

As more and more people use the internet all over the world, many users begin to question the security of their public information. There is a multitude of ways to protect online information such as only visiting trusted websites and making your passwords hard to guess. However, people can still track your internet address and find what you have been doing on the internet. Internet addresses (IP addresses) are given to every device and network that can connect to the internet. They allow for internet sites to know which users are accessing them and where to send information to. Virtual private networks (VPNs) are one way to protect your internet address and privacy.

There are two types of internet protocol addresses (IP address). The first is a private IP address, which is the address that is given by your router at home to its devices such as computers, printers, TVs, and phones. A private address is connected only to your personal router and can only be accessed by your network. Private addresses usually begin with 192.168 and are followed by two more numbers. The other type of IP address is the public IP address. This is used to interact with the internet. An ISP (Internet Service Provider) assigns a public address to every router and can be easily found by typing “What is my IP address” into a Google search engine. Since a public address is needed to do any form of interaction with the internet, people can access and track it. VPNs are one way to protect a public address.

VPNs encrypt data to hide your IP and location. This keeps data secure and private. They do this by creating what is known as a tunnel protocol to transfer data packets and act as a security layer. This is especially important in public hotspots and places where lots of people are using a Wi-Fi network at the same time. Public Wi-Fi networks allow almost anyone to connect, making it vulnerable for anyone to hack. 

VPNs can be used to connect to a private server. Many large corporations use VPNs to allow employees to connect to their work server so that they can access it and do work while on the go or even at home. VPNs can also change your location by connecting to servers in other countries. This allows for users to access blocked sites such as social media or even watch streams that are locked to a specific geographical location. 
   
Software like VNC and Cisco AnyConnect can allow users to connect to other private networks such as work servers. Public VPNs such as ExpressVPN, NordVPN and Private Internet Access can be used by almost anyone to protect their personal internet usage. There are many options available for the general public to use to help protect internet data, so that no matter where you are in the world, you can be safe. 

Info sourced from: Techopedia, Linus Media Group
Image sourced from: HowStuffWorks

Sunday, August 25, 2019

Discovery of New Pain Organ

 

Karolinska Institutet researchers have found a new pain organ that can help scientists to better understand the process of how pain is experienced and processed by our body. More specifically, this organ is particularly responsive to pain originating from pressure and pricks, otherwise referred to as mechanical pain. 

This organ, termed as the nociceptive glio-neural complex, is a sensory receptor organ that is comprised of a collection of glial cells. This organ rests in between the skin’s outer and inner layers. The glial cells themselves contain protrusions that stem into the outer layer of the skin. 

The functionality of this organ was tested in mice, and it was observed that deactivating the nociceptive glio-neural complex resulted in the mice experiencing less pain from pricks and pressure, suggesting that this organ in fact does play a major role in the processing of mechanical pain. 

Although this organ is yet to be discovered in humans, it may help scientists to further develop their understanding on how our body interprets pain stimuli. It was previously thought that mechanical pain originated exclusively from nociceptive fibres. However, from this new finding this type of pain may very well start from the glio-neural complex instead. 


Read more about the discovery on the Karolinska Institutet website:
National Geographic article:


Wednesday, August 21, 2019

Science of The Dancing Parrot

 


It was August of 2007 when a parrot named Snowball was left at a rescue centre in Dyer, Indiana. Soon after, the parrot became a YouTube sensation because of its amazing dancing skills, catching the attention of millions, including neuroscientists.The concept of dancing as seen in humans cannot be seen in most species, but parrots are the exception. In fact, parrots and humans are the only species that connect with music by showing a variety of spontaneous movements. These movements might be due to the fact that parrots are vocal learners with auditory-motor connections in their nervous system.


So far, research has shown the synchrony between the music beat and a parrot’s head and/or feet movement. Researchers wanted to see more of Snowball so they exposed him to new music once in a while such that now, he has 14 diverse dance movements like swinging his head, making half circles, doing headbangs, etc.


Parrots can acquire these  movements through various ways, such as imitation or copying humans. If dancing by imitation is the case, it is interesting to note that parrots might realize and distinguish the difference in body shapes between themselves and humans and still copy the motor movements of dance.
As well, dance movements might be a product of the parrots’ creativity. Animals other than humans usually show creativity upon a physical benefit like accessing food or mates. However, Snowball uses dancing to communicate with his human caregivers, without any food or mating opportunity present.


Read the full article by Atlantic here:
https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/07/what-snowball-dancing-parrot-tells-us-about-dance/593428/

Read the full research paper by Current Biology here:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960982219306049

Image Credit: Atlantic

Sunday, August 18, 2019

The Objective Truth About the Microwave

 


Microwaves are magic. They transform frozen blocks into mouth watering food. Meals that would otherwise take hours to cook can be nuked to desired temperatures in just minutes. A microwave, magic aside, is a simple device. It’s a box that shoots waves at a frequency of approximately 2.45 gigahertz which translates to a wavelength of approximately 12 cm. The waves at this specific frequency are absorbed by water, fats, and sugars to create heat so plates and bowls are not heated. That’s it.
This year marks the 52nd anniversary of the microwave oven. The first countertop microwave was sold in 1967 for $495. Expensive, yes, but it was the latest prototype of a device that once weighed 750 pounds and sold for $5,000 in 1946. By the mid 1980s, microwaves could be found in 25% of U.S. households, quickly rising to a whopping 90% in 1997. 
The original story is quite simple: the rising radar needs of WWII demanded for faster production of the magnetron (i.e. devices that generated radio waves) and so, engineer Percy Spencer redesigned the device so that its components could be punched out from sheet metal rather than each part needing to be individually machined which allowed mass production of magnetrons.
While working one day, he noticed that a candy bar in his pocket had started to melt and suspected that waves from the magnetron were causing this. So to verify his theory, he pointed the radar beam at a raw egg - the egg exploded from rapid heating. Another experiment with corn kernels showed that radio waves could quickly make popcorn. A patent soon followed and the Radarange was born.

 This mysterious little box is practically in every household, let’s hope this article did justice in demystifying its history and workings.

Friday, August 16, 2019

TESS Discovers a New Class of Exoplanet

 
Credit: NASA

Although exoplanetary astronomy may be a relatively young scientific field, over 4 000 exoplanets are known today. From this vast set of data, scientists have been able to determine that there are general classes which almost every exoplanet falls into, such as Super-Earth, Mini-Neptune, and Hot Jupiter. However, recent observations by NASA’s TESS (Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite) have identified a completely new class of exoplanet: the Ultrahot Neptune.

Astronomer James Jenkins reported the discovery of the planet in question, LTT 9779b, at the TESS Science Conference on July 29th. The planet was first identified as a candidate using TESS, and subsequent observations were conducted by HARPS (High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher). LTT 9779b orbits the star LTT 9779, a sun-like and high metallicity star situated around 260 light years from our solar system. Thanks to these observations, astronomers were able to determine that the planet orbits its host star in a mere 19 hours, which places it extremely close to the star. Further measurements determined that the planet has a radius of 4.6 Earth radii, and a mass of 29.3 Earth masses. This positions it firmly in the Neptune-like category of planets, but it is the first such Neptune-like planet to be discovered so close to its star.

Interestingly, it appears that hardly any planets with Neptune-like mass have orbits of four days or fewer around their star. Rather, the most commonly-found planets this close to their star are Super-Earths, or planets with masses greater than that of Jupiter. These results, plus the proximity of the planet causing it to have a temperature around 2000 kelvins, categorizes LTT 9779b as a planet in the Neptunian desert. This collection of traits has never been observed before, and thus, the Ultrahot Neptune class is born.

Studying LTT 9779b will provide crucial insights into the existence of the Neptunian desert, and the evolution of gas planets. Current theories seem to suggest that gas planets often form farther out from their star, then move closer in over time. As the planet migrates nearer to its star, its orbital period decreases, and its temperature greatly increases. Furthermore, the decreasing distance between the planet and the star results in an increase in the concentration of solar wind particles, and the star slowly strips the planet of its atmosphere. Scientists hypothesize that the Neptunian desert exists because Jupiter-like planets migrate extremely close to their stars, stripping off their atmospheres, and leaving behind only a rocky core. This suggests that the newly discovered Ultrahot Neptune is perhaps a transitionary phase from Hot Jupiter to Super-Earth.

The next steps for research are to determine the rate at which LTT 9779b is losing mass due to its star. If the rate at which it loses mass is fast on astronomical time scales, then perhaps this is the reason no other Ultrahot Neptunes have been discovered until now: they simply exist for too short a time.


Read the presentation abstract here: https://tsc.mit.edu/docs/Talk_Abstracts.pdf

Saturday, July 27, 2019

Light Found to Induce Hallucinations in Mouse Brains

 

Stanford University’s neuroscientist Karl Deissertoth and his team have observed a breakthrough phenomenon - how light can be used to fire specific neurons and stimulate certain images subsequently in the brains of mice. 

In the experiment, mice were shown visuals of vertical and horizontal lines separately. Furthermore, the scientists trained the mice so that when they were shown the vertical bars at any point, they consequently licked a tube of water. After analyzing records from the brains of the mice and the activity of the neurons, Deissertoth and his team noticed twenty or so neurons whose activity was linked to the image of vertical bars. 

The scientists then shone light on these twenty neurons and observed that the mice would start licking the water tubes, as they were trained to do so, in the absence of any image. This lead Deisseroth and his colleagues to believe that shining light on the specific neurons induced hallucinations of the vertical bars in the mice. When shining light on the neurons that were associated with the horizontal bars however, the mice did not lick the tube. 

This method of manipulating neurons with light is referred to as optogenetics, and scientists are utilizing this technology to understand the connections between the neurons associated with particular images and the areas of the brain that interpret those images. 

Read the full article by Nature Research:

Read the full article by Scientific American:

Image credits:
Dr. Chris Henstridge/Science Photo Library

Thursday, July 25, 2019

Physicians of Many Stem Cell Clinics Don’t Have Relevant Training

 

Stem cells seem to be a great addition to the packages of products that claim to be effective and organic. So far, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has only approved stem cell based products that are used in treating immune system disorders. However, there are numerous clinics in the US who claim to offer stem cell treatment for disorders such as Alzheimer’s and muscular dystrophy. In fact, a 2016 study recognized more than 500 clinics who were advertising unapproved and unproven stem cell products.

A new study published in JAMA journal analyzed 166 websites associated with different stem cell companies. It was then found that only 81 of such companies have employed physicians with medical training relevant to the claimed stem cell treatment. Surprisingly, there were nine companies who did not list any physicians on their website. Zubin Master, a bioethicist who led the study, warns patients about this matter and encourages patients to check the backgrounds of physicians when looking for stem cell treatments in different clinics.

In the US, the extraction and re-injection of stem cells that have been minimally manipulated do not require the approval of the FDA. This has always been a concern for bioethicists since they believe that stem-cell-based procedures should be classified in the category of drugs and biologics, which are eligible for FDA considerations. 

Read the full article by Nature here:
https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-01999-6

Read the full research paper by JAMA Journal here: 


Saturday, July 20, 2019

Reflections on Apollo 11

 


On July 16, 1969, three men left Earth inside the most powerful rocket ever created. After a four-day journey, 50 years ago today, two of those men set foot on the Moon. In terms of distance, bravery, and impact on our species, Apollo 11 is perhaps the greatest mission to ever have been undertaken. Its effects are still felt today, and will continue to be felt far into the future.


Apollo 11 served as a brief glimpse into what our future may be. It showed us that not only can we travel to space, but we can establish ourselves on other worlds; our future is in space and is driven by science. Apollo 11 inspired millions of scientific minds at the time, and will continue to inspire millions more.

More importantly, it showed us that we can set aside our differences and unite as a species. In the depths of the Cold War, with nuclear annihilation seemingly imminent, the world every so fleetingly united to see the first man to walk on the Moon. From space, borders do not exist; we are one people with the Earth as our nation.

Apollo 11 conveyed a message of hope and excitement to the world. This excitement set in motion an urge to continue exploring, to continue pushing our boundaries beyond Earth. Apollo 11 encouraged many to dream of setting foot on another world, and these dreams will be realized for some. The drive to return to the Moon will soon culminate in missions such as NASA’s Artemis mission, and plans SpaceX has for a Moon base. This time, we are going to the Moon to stay. The drive to continue advancing the frontier has led to monumental innovations and inventions, which will take us not only to the Moon again but beyond. This drive will take us to Mars, and to the outer solar system, and one day to other stars entirely. The Moon landing ignited a flame which will fuel our journeys for years to come.

Neil Armstrong’s small step was our first step as a species outside of our cradle, venturing into another world. This small step was our first step on our way to becoming a spacefaring species. The repercussions of this step will be felt far in the future, and the words accompanying this step will be etched in the memory of humanity for eternity. The first words spoken on the Moon will forever echo on Earth.

The 50th anniversary of the Moon landing allows us to reflect upon our past, and start working for the future. Since the Moon landing, we have made great strides in fields all across STEM, and the world is a better place for it. However, we have also come closer and closer to destroying ourselves and taking the Earth with us through climate change and our inability to stop fighting. Let this day remind us what we are capable of, and what our future can be. There is a bright future for humanity out among the stars, and it is our job to work for it.

Apollo was our first step into the beyond. It will not be our last.

Wednesday, July 17, 2019

A Look at 8K TVs and Monitors

 

   TVs and monitors have become increasingly popular as more and more people use high resolution screens at work and at home. Most TVs have a resolution of 3840 by 2160 pixels. These TVs are known as 4K or UDH (ultra-high-definition). Some computer monitors are 4K, but many are still 1080p or Full HD, which is 1920 by 1080 pixels. But now, some companies have begun selling 8K TVs and monitors, with a resolution of 7680 by 4320 pixels. This means that it is 4 times sharper in image quality compared to UHD. Here are some 8K products available:

Samsung

   Samsung was one of the first companies to release an 8K TV and it has made many variants since then. It sports one of the biggest TVs at 98” with more than 33 million pixels. It also utilizes Quantum HDR which allows for colours that feel more vibrant by increasing depth for clarity and making details sharper. The use of 8K Direct Full Array technology assists in this by improving contrast, making colours more precise. Samsung’s website sells 6 variants of the Class Q900 QLED Smart TV ranging from 55” to 98”. The 98” variant is sold at $99,999.99, but at the time of writing, this was on sale for $69,999.99, a 30% discount. The 55” variant has a much more reasonable price at $3499.99. Additional soundbars with Dolby Atmos, subwoofers, rear speakers, and warranty are also available for purchase.

Check out the Class Q900 here

Dell

   Dell has been known for its monitors, but it now presents itself with the world’s first 31.5” 8K monitor, the Ultrasharp 32. The Ultrasharp 32 has won several awards including “Best Monitor” and “Best Pixels” at CES 2017. It utilizes Dell PremierColor, which supports all major industry standards of colour such as sRGB, AdobeRGB and Rec. 709, coming out to a total of 1.07 billion colours. This monitor uses two DisplayPort inputs and 3 USB ports and has a refresh rate of 60Hz

Check out the Ultrasharp 32 here

Sony

   Sony has showcased their 8K TV but hasn’t released it yet. It was first showcased at CES 2019 and boasted technology that could scale lower-resolution images to 8K. It also used Smart TV coupled with Android TV to offer features such as Google Assistant, Google Play, and Netflix built in. At the time of writing, Sony’s Z9G, part of the Master Series, was not yet priced, but 85” and 98” variants were showcased.

Check out their 8K TV here

Image sourced from Samsung Class Q900 release page
Copyright 2018 News of the Universe | Produced by K. Tam